<underfire> 'Ashura'; or, Torturous Memory as a Condition of Possibility of an Unconditional Promise

[Jalal Toufic]


‘Âshûrâ’; or, Torturous Memory as a Condition of Possibility of  
an Unconditional Promise
Jalal Toufic

Can one still give and maintain millenarian promises in the twenty  
first century? But first, a more basic question: can one still  
promise at all?

Al-Husayn, the grandson of the prophet Muhammad and the son of the  
first Shi‘ite imâm, ‘Alî b. Abî Tâlib, was slaughtered  
alongside many members of his family in the desert in 680. This  
memory is torture to me.

“I am not allowed to weep, because I’ll become blind were I  
to do so,” says old Victoria Rizqallah at the end of my video  
‘Âshûrâ’: This Blood Spilled in My Veins, 2002. But wouldn’t  
losing the ability to weep be even more detrimental and sadder than  
going blind? I would prefer to (be able to) weep even were I to go  
blind as a result of that—to weep over going blind? Isn’t that  
better than becoming inhuman? “For others too can see, or sleep, /  
But only human eyes can weep” (Andrew Marvell, “Eyes and Tears”).

But, basically, one can say this memory is torture to me of every  
memory, since each reminiscence envelops at some level the memory of  
the origin of memory, the torture that had to be inflicted on humans  
in order for them to be able to remember. If we feel a tinge of pain,  
a pang, when we remember it is not necessarily because the past  
vanishes, is no more (Einstein’s relativity and Dogen’s Zen tell  
us otherwise in two different ways),1 but because each memory  
reactivates in us however faintly the genealogy of the establishment  
of memory. In Twelver Shi‘ites’ yearly ten-day commemoration  
‘Âshûrâ’, we witness a condition of possibility of memory, in a  
Nietzschian sense.

 “To breed an animal with the right to  
make promises—is not this the paradoxical task that nature has set  
itself in the case of man? is it not the real problem regarding man?

“That this problem has been solved to a large extent must seem all  
the more remarkable to anyone who appreciates the strength of the  
opposing force, that of forgetfulness. Forgetting is no mere vis  
inertiae as the superficial imagine; it is rather an active and in  
the strictest sense positive faculty of repression…2

“Now this animal which needs to be forgetful, in which forgetting  
represents a force, a form of robust health, has bred in itself an  
opposing faculty, a memory, with the aid of which forgetfulness is  
abrogated in certain cases—namely in those cases where promises are  
made…

“‘How can one create a memory for the human animal? How can one  
impress something upon this partly obtuse, partly flighty mind,  
attuned only to the passing moment, in such a way that it will stay  
there?’

“One can well believe that the answers and methods for solving this  
primeval problem were not precisely gentle; perhaps indeed there was  
nothing more fearful and uncanny in the whole prehistory of man than  
his mnemotechnics. ‘If something is to stay in memory it must be  
burned in: only that which never ceases to hurt stays in the  
memory’3—this is a main clause of the oldest (unhappily also the  
most enduring) psychology on earth.4 One might even say that wherever  
on earth solemnity, seriousness, mystery, and gloomy coloring still  
distinguish the life of man and a people, something of the terror  
that formerly attended all promises, pledges and vows on earth is  
still effective… Man could never do without blood, torture, and  
sacrifices when he felt the need to create a memory for himself; the  
most dreadful sacrifices and pledges (sacrifices of the first-born  
among them),5 the most repulsive mutilations (castration, for  
example),6 the cruelest rites of all the religious cults (and all  
religions are at the deepest level systems of cruelties)—all this  
has its origin in the instinct that realized that pain is the most  
powerful aid to mnemonics.

“If we place ourselves at the end of this tremendous process, where  
the tree at last brings forth fruit, where society and the morality  
of custom at last reveal what they have simply been the means to,  
then we discover that the ripest fruit is the sovereign individual,  
like only to himself, liberated again from morality of customs,  
autonomous and supramoral (for ‘autonomous’ and ‘moral’ are  
mutually exclusive), in short, the man who has his own independent,  
protracted will and the right to make promises… And just as he is  
bound to honor his peers, the strong and reliable (those with the  
right to make promises)—that is, all those who promise like  
sovereigns, reluctantly, rarely, slowly, who are chary of trusting,  
whose trust is a mark of distinction, who give their word7 as  
something that can be relied on because they know themselves strong  
enough to maintain it in the face of accidents, even ‘in the face of  
fate’—he is bound to reserve… a rod for the liar who breaks his  
word even at the moment he utters it.

“… Ah, reason, seriousness, mastery over the affects, the whole  
somber thing called reflection, all these prerogatives and showpieces  
of man: how dearly they have been bought! How much blood and cruelty  
lie at the bottom of all ‘good things’!”8

The preservation of the events of ‘Âshûrâ’ takes place at two  
levels: in ‘âlam al-mithâl (The World of the Archetypal Images),  
aka ‘âlam al-khayâl (The World of the Imagination),9 where they  
are, in a transfigured version, eternal, outside the corrosive,  
dimming sway of chronological time, as well as the labyrinthine  
temporality of the realm of undeath, where al-Husayn would run the  
risk of forgetting who he is, of forgetting himself; and in  
historical time, through the bodily and emotional tortures endured  
during the yearly ten-day commemorative ceremony,10 which are the  
means to breed in the human being,11 a forgetful creature (“And  
verily We made a covenant of old with Adam, but he forgot, and We  
found no constancy in him” [Qur’ân 20:115]), a historical memory.  
But the memory that the ceremony of ‘Âshûrâ’ is trying to  
maintain is not only or mainly that of the past, but the memory of  
the future, that of the promise of the coming of the Mahdî, the  
Shi‘ite messiah, as well as the corresponding promise of Twelver  
Shi‘ites to wait for him. The exemplary promise has until now been  
the messianic one, for at least three reasons. First, it has been the  
longest lasting, spanning centuries, even millennia. Second, it has  
been maintained “in the face of accidents, even ‘in the face of  
fate’ ”: Twelver Shi‘ites have maintained the promise to wait  
for the successor of al-Hasan al-‘Askarî, the eleventh imâm, who  
died in 260 AH/873-74, even though the latter apparently left no son,  
and even though the occultation of the presumed twelfth imâm has by  
now persisted for over a millennium; and they have maintained their  
expectation that the twelfth imâm will fulfill his promise to appear  
again. Third, it implicates a supramoral, antinomian attitude. Hence  
Sabbatai Zevi’s “strange actions,” which included causing ten  
Israelites to eat “fat of the kidney” in 1658, an act that is  
strictly prohibited by the Torah and punishable by excision (getting  
cut off from among one’s people); reciting the following benediction  
over the ritually forbidden fat: “Blessed are Thou, O Lord, who  
permittest that which is forbidden”; and abolishing the fast of the  
Seventeenth of Tammuz in 1665. Hence also the Qarmatîs’ sacking and  
desecration of the Ka‘ba in 930 and then their abolishing of the  
Sharî‘a during the Zakariyya al-Isfahânî episode in Ahsâ’. And  
hence the Nizârîs’ abolishing of the Sharî‘a starting with the  
proclamation by Hasan ‘ala dhikrihi’l-salâm (on his mention be  
peace) of the Great Resurrection in Alamût in 8 August 1164 from a  
pulpit facing west, a direction opposite to the Ka‘ba in Mecca, the  
direction toward which all Moslems have to turn during their prayer.  
12 The basic and ultimate promise is to wait for the messiah, who,  
truly sovereign, supramoral, will initially break the Law, including  
the “laws” of nature13 (indeed his miraculous coming  
notwithstanding his death or millennial occultation is often  
announced by supernatural events “such as the rise of the sun from  
the west, and the occurrence of the solar and lunar eclipses in the  
middle and the end of the month of Ramadan, respectively, against the  
natural order of such phenomena”14), then, upon establishing  
redemption, altogether abolish the Law, which applies only to the  
unredeemed world, thus allowing his initiates to be resurrected into  
a lawless world.15 The ceremony of ‘Âshûrâ’ is the flip side of  
the belief in the promise of the hidden imâm. I would thus wager that  
the introduction of the ceremonies of ‘Âshûrâ’ and of Ta‘ziya  
coincided with a period when Twelver Shi‘ism was not on the rise  
but, on the contrary, when the continued belief in the coming of the  
Mahdî was in danger of extinction. From this perspective, the  
condemnation of these ceremonies by many Twelver Shi‘ite  
‘ulamâ’16 is either shortsighted or else implies that they would  
like to fully supplant the Mahdî. Were ‘Âshûrâ’ to be  
discontinued across the Twelver Shi‘ite community, then sooner or  
later the memory of the promise of the occulted imâm would fade away.  
The basic reason the ceremony’s participants hit themselves and  
self- flagellate17 is not some unreasonable feeling of guilt for not  
succoring imâm Husayn and his family around 1300 years ago, but that  
such cruelty is a most efficient mnemonic. Some may object that the  
morality of mores, etc., has already born fruit, namely the one who  
can promise on the basis of his ability to remember, and that  
therefore there is no longer any need for such a cruel mnemonic. This  
would be the case for promises of normal spans (but not for one that  
spans millennia),18 and were we not reaching a point where the  
immemorial process, described by Nietzsche, by which humans succeeded  
to a large extent to create a memory for themselves is beginning to  
be reversed. As Jean-Joseph Goux points out: “Every society has  
produced, exchanged, and consumed, but it is only in the modern era  
in the West that the economy has been separated from all religious,  
political, and moral ends in order to constitute a system ruled by  
its own laws, which are those of market exchange.… the exchange  
destroys the bond produced as it proceeds. The equivalent exchange is  
without memory and without obligation. It is a relation that cancels  
and neutralizes itself at the moment of its fulfillment.”19 And Paul  
Virilio, the thinker of dromology, writes: “The acceleration of real  
time, the limit-acceleration of the speed of light, not only dispels  
geophysical extension (…) but, first and foremost, it dispels the  
importance of the longues durées of the local time of regions,  
countries and the old, deeply territorialized nations. (…) Past,  
present and future—that tripartite division of the time continuum—  
then cedes primacy to the immediacy of a tele-presence… This is  
(…) the time of light and its speed—a cosmological constant  
capable of conditioning human history.”20 We started with a flighty  
mind attuned only to the passing moment; then we had a torturous  
process of thousands of years of pain and sacrifices to inculcate in  
humans a memory, and consequently a deep time; but we have now  
reached someone who is being conditioned by the hegemony of market  
exchange over all other ends, and programmed by telecommunications at  
the speed of light, for example TV (on average in the USA, children  
aged 2 to 11 watch about 23 hours of TV per week, and teenagers watch  
about 22 hours per week),21 to hear and see a live “event”  
anywhere in the world of globalization only to instantly forget about  
it: Rwanda, then sports, then a commercial for a soap brand, etc.;  
and to restrict his or her interaction with others to an economic  
transaction, “which by its symmetry and instantaneous reciprocity…  
is without fidelity or commitment, an abstract relation that exhausts  
the disaffected mutuality it implies, without leaving any trace.”22  
In order to describe the human being at the beginning of the twenty  
first century in front of his TV, we can instead of resorting to  
Virilio’s contemporary terms revert to the terms Nietzsche was using  
to describe man in prehistory: “partly obtuse, partly flighty mind,  
attuned only to the passing moment.” We (or more precisely the West)  
will more and more be able to accurately predict through computer  
simulation,23 but we (or more precisely the West) will less and less  
be able to give promises.

23 March 2002
Jalal Toufic, Beirut
jtoufic at cyberia.net.lb

Betty, Paris: As for the book you volunteered to give me as a gift  
and promised to send to me, Italo Calvino’s Invisible Cities, one of  
the lines in the first edition of my first book, Distracted, says:  
“My apology turned out to be unnecessary, for he had already  
forgiven my age”: isn’t youth the age when one gives so many  
promises—including to oneself—that remain unfulfilled—at least  
for a long time? Promising is one of those actions that seem to be  
the easiest—after all, it is a performative (see J.L. Austin’s How  
to Do Things with Words)—when actually it is the most difficult  
since unnatural: “To breed an animal with the right to make  
promises—is not this the paradoxical task that nature has set itself  
in the case of man?” (Nietzsche). 

Best
Jalal

Notes

1 Dogen: “An ancient Buddha said: ‘For the time being stand on top  
of the highest peak.… / For the time being three heads and eight  
arms. / For the time being an eight- or sixteen-foot body.…’  
‘For the time being’ here means time itself is being, and all  
being is time. A golden sixteen-foot body is time… ‘Three heads  
and eight arms’ is time… Yet an ordinary person who does not  
understand buddha-dharma may hear the words the time-being this way:  
‘For a while I was three heads and eight arms.… Even though the  
mountains and rivers still exist, I have already passed them… Those  
mountains and rivers are as distant from me as heaven is from  
earth.’ It is not that simple. At the time the mountains were  
climbed and the rivers crossed, you were present. Time is not  
separate from you, and as you are present, time does not go  
away.” [“The Time-Being” (uji)].
2 Cf. “Freud does not consider this amnesia [infantile amnesia] to  
be the result of any functional inability of the young child to  
record his impressions; instead, he attributes it to the repression  
which falls upon infantile sexuality (…). Just like hysterical  
amnesia, infantile amnesia can in principle be dispelled; it does not  
imply any destruction or absence of registrations of  
memories…” (J. Laplanche and J.-B. Pontalis, The language of  
Psycho-analysis, trans. Donald Nicholson-Smith, with an introduction  
by Daniel Lagache [New York: Norton, 1973], pp. 212-213).
3 Among other factors, we can call the long primeval period the  
“prehistory of man” for the following two complementary reasons.  
The first is that he had a flighty mind and was attuned only to the  
passing moment, and so was unable to produce the deep temporality of  
past/present/future required to construct a history. The second  
reason is that most of the torture to inculcate in him a memory, i.e.  
the most atrocious and frequent torture, was happening then, with the  
result that that period, the most traumatic of all, was and still is  
repressed, and consequently is not included in our history—it is as  
it were humanity’s infantile amnesia.
4 Nietzsche’s words apply far better to the distant past, for man  
could then withstand much more pain because he was much more  
superficial, whereas now, having to a large extent succeeded in  
creating a memory for himself and therefore being (temporally) far  
deeper, with few exceptions intense pain easily and quickly  
traumatizes him, ushering repression and consequently post-traumatic  
amnesia.
5 A long-term memory of the addressee of the promise is a  
precondition even for the promiser. Thus one of the conditions for  
God’s promise to Abraham is that the latter create a memory for  
himself: “Then God said, ‘Take your son, your only son, Isaac,  
whom you love, and go to the region of Moriah. Sacrifice him there as  
a burnt offering on one of the mountains I will tell you  
about.’ (…) The angel of the Lord called to Abraham from heaven a  
second time and said, ‘I swear by myself, declares the Lord, that  
because you have done this and have not withheld your son, your only  
son, I will surely bless you and make your descendants as numerous as  
the stars in the sky and as the sand on the seashore. Your  
descendants will take possession of the cities of their enemies, and  
through your offspring all nations on earth will be blessed…’  
” (Genesis 22:2-18).
6 Clearly castration is here theorized from a different perspective  
than the one encountered in most feminist film criticism drawing on  
psychoanalysis (see Laura Mulvey’s “Visual Pleasure and Narrative  
Cinema”).
7 At the base of all language, at least once originally forgetful  
humanity has achieved the long-term memory that is a prerequisite of  
promising (Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morals), is not  
communication per se, but promising, thus the idiomatic expressions  
be as good as your word (to keep a promise [Cambridge International  
Dictionary of Idioms]); give your word (to promise [Ibid.]); man/  
woman of your word (someone who keeps their promises [Ibid.]) (I  
wonder why we say “I give you my word” but we don’t also say:  
“I give you my image”!). Does “In the beginning was the  
Word” (John 1:1) also mean “in the beginning was the promise”  
since to give one’s word is to promise? In the beginning God gave  
his Word, and it was that one day humans will be able to give their  
word, to promise. Has this promise disappeared with the Nietzschean  
death of God?
8 Friedrich Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morals, trans. Walter  
Kaufmann and R.J. Hollingdale/Ecce Homo, trans. Walter Kaufmann;  
edited, with commentary, by Walter Kaufmann (New York: Vintage Books,  
1989), pp. 57-62. I rearranged the order of one of the quote’s  
paragraphs.
9 More specifically in al-khayâl al-munfasil. Ibn al-‘Arabî  
“calls the intermediate world of imagination ‘discontiguous  
imagination’ (al-khayâl al-munfasil), since it exists independently  
of the viewer. And he names the soul along with the faculty of  
imagination ‘contiguous imagination’ (al-khayâl al-muttasil),  
since these are connected to the viewing subject.” (William C.  
Chittick, The Sufi Path of Knowledge: Ibn al-‘Arabi’s Metaphysics  
of Imagination [Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press,  
1989], p. 117). The notion of khayâl munfasil, of an imagination  
independent of the viewer, which we find not only in the Sufism of  
Ibn al-‘Arabî but also in Shi‘ite theosophy, will regain currency  
with the advances in and spread of virtual reality; in Andy and Larry  
Wachowski’s Gnostic film The Matrix, 1999, the vast simulation  
called the Matrix is an example of khayâl munfasil, while what each  
of those within the Matrix, i.e. within the khayâl munfasil,  
subjectively imagines is a khayâl muttasil.
10 Many of those present at the assemblies of ‘Âshûrâ’ cover  
their faces with their hands. When they remove their hands one often  
can see that they were crying. But sometimes, one suddenly espies  
through a gap between their fingers that they are yawning! In part  
these yawns are not the effect of boredom at hearing yet again the  
same stories of the atrocities, but of sleepiness, as these  
assemblies take place from around 9 p.m. till around midnight. This  
yawn has the same unsettling effect as the small spot of corruption  
in the otherwise uncorrupted corpse of a saint: “Ruysbroeck has been  
buried for five years; he is exhumed; his body is intact and pure (of  
course—otherwise, there would be no story); but ‘there was only  
the tip of the nose which bore a faint but certain trace of  
corruption.’ In the other’s perfect and embalmed figure (for that  
is the degree to which it fascinates me) I perceive suddenly a speck  
of corruption. This speck is a tiny one: a gesture, a word, an  
object, a garment, something unexpected which appears (which dawns)  
from a region I had never even suspected, and suddenly attaches the  
loved object to a commonplace world.… I am flabbergasted: I hear a  
counter-rhythm: something like a syncope in the lovely phrase of the  
loved being, the noise of a rip in the smooth envelope of the  
Image” (“The Tip of the Nose,” in Roland Barthes, A Lover’s  
Discourse: Fragments, trans. Richard Howard [New York: Hill and Wang,  
1978], p. 25). The sleepiness affecting these yawning participants is  
of the kind that affected the three disciples Jesus Christ selected  
to accompany him for prayer. He asked them: “Stay here and watch  
with Me” (Matthew 26: 38). He moved a stone’s throw (Luke 22:41—  
how incisive is the laconism of this a stone’s throw) and prayed.  
Returning to them, he found the three sleeping: “What? Could you not  
watch with Me one hour?” (Matthew 26:40). Three times does he leave  
them to pray, each time, upon returning, finding them sleeping. “Are  
you still sleeping and resting? Behold, the hour is at hand, and the  
Son of Man is being betrayed…” (Matthew 26:45).
11 “Respecting the derivation of insân [a human being], authors  
differ (…): the Basrees say that it is from al-insu [sociability],  
and its measure is fi‘lân; (…) some say that it is from înâs,  
signifiying ‘perception,’ or ‘sight,’ and ‘knowledge,’  
and ‘sensation’ (…) and Mohammad Ibn-‘Arafeh El-Wâsitee says  
that men are called insiyyûn because they are seen (yu’nasûn, i.e.  
yurawn) and that the jinn are called jinn because they are  
[ordinarily] concealed (mujtannûn, i.e. mutawârûn,) from the sight  
of men (…) some (namely, the Koofees, Misbâh al-Fayyûmî) say that  
it is originally insiyân (Ibn Barrî, author of the Annotations on  
the Sihâh, with Al-Bustî, Misbâh al-Fayyûmî, Tâj al-‘Arûs,)  
of the measure if‘ilân, from an-nisyân [“forgetfulness”], (al-  
Misbâh), and contracted to make it more easy of pronunciation,  
because of its being so often used.” The entry alif nûn sîn in  
Edward William Lane, An Arabic-English Lexicon, 8 volumes (Beirut,  
Lebanon: Librairie du Liban, 1980).
12 The Great Resurrection of Alamût lasted till 1210.
13 Friedrich Nietzsche: “I beware of speaking of chemical  
‘laws’: that savours of morality.” The Will to Power, trans.  
Walter Kaufmann and R.J. Hollingdale (New York: Random House, 1968),  
p. 630.
14 Abdulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina, Islamic Messianism: The Idea of  
the Mahdi in Twelver Shi‘ism (Albany: State University of New York  
Press, 1981), p. 158.
15 I find this period so unjust that it seems to me there are, beside  
the revolutionary one, two exemplary responses to it: a messianic one  
and a Gnostic one. The first demands waiting for the messiah (“which  
is the best of actions during his occultation”), who will in the end  
fill with justice a world only transiently filled with injustice  
since it is essentially and ultimately good, being created by God,  
the good God. The second demands the disinvestment from this demonic  
world, which has nothing to do with the good God, but was created by  
a demiurge.
16 For example Muhsin al-Amîn: see Thawrat al-tanzîh: Risâlat al-  
tanzîh, talîha mawâqif minhâ wa-arâ’ fî al-Sayyid Muhsin al-  
Amîn, ed. Muhammad al-Qâsim al-Husaynî al-Najafî (Bayrût: Dâr  
al- Jadîd, 1996).
17 Many a flagellant’s slap against his chest is as sober as the  
flapping of a bird’s wing during flight. 18 While we should be  
willing to pay the price for the ability to give promises, and  
therefore for the memory that is a precondition for promises, should  
we make sure that promises do not span centuries or millennia, given  
that the price of such promises is exorbitant?
19 Jean-Joseph Goux, “Subversion and Consensus: Proletarians, Women,  
Artists,” in Terror and Consensus: Vicissitudes of French Thought,  
ed. Jean-Joseph Goux and Philip R. Wood (Stanford, CA: Stanford  
University Press, 1998), pp. 37 and 39.
20 Paul Virilio, The Information Bomb, trans. Chris Turner (London:  
Verso, 2000), pp. 118-119.
21 1992 figures; they were 28 hours per week and 23.5 hours per week,  
respectively, in 1986 (1986 Nielsen Report on Television). According  
to the Center for Media Education in Washington, DC, watching TV is  
the #1 after-school activity for 6 to 17 year olds; each year most  
children spend about 1500 hours in front of the TV and 900 hours in  
the classroom; and by age 70, most people will have spent about 10  
years watching TV.
22 Jean-Joseph Goux, “Subversion and Consensus: Proletarians, Women,  
Artists,” in Terror and Consensus: Vicissitudes of French Thought,  
ed. Jean-Joseph Goux and Philip R. Wood, p. 39.
23 Indeed live prematurely in the future through virtual reality  
using the simulation of extremely powerful computers.








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